1.5 A Framework for Training and Development

What exactly do we mean by training and development? Before defining training, it is useful to start with learning. Learning is typically defined as a relatively permanent change in knowledge, skills, attitudes, or social behavior resulting from practice or experience. Thus, learning is the desired outcome of any training program. Training, in turn, is learning that is planned by the organization and designed so as to further organizational objectives.1

So while learning can happen in any place and on any topic and in any manner, training is a focused version of learning that is consciously designed and guided by the organization in order to facilitate goal accomplishment. That learning plays a central role in training and development is highlighted by the fact that the Association for Talent Development (ATD, formerly the American Society of Training and Development, or ASTD) publishes an annual report on the state of the training industry in which it refers not to the state of T&D (training and development) but rather the state of L&D (learning and development).2

Training vs. Development

Frequently, a distinction is made between training and development. The former is generally regarded as an organization's planned effort to facilitate employees' learning of job-related knowledge, skills, and competencies for the current job. The latter, on the other hand, has a more long-term focus represented by formal education, job experiences, relationships, and assessments of personality and abilities that help employees prepare for future jobs. Regardless of whether we are looking to the short- or the long-term, the basic aim of training and development programs is to help the organization achieve its mission and goals by improving individual—and, ultimately, organizational—performance. As noted above, this can be done by helping to build human capital into social capital, and by creating organizational capabilities that are difficult for competitors to imitate.

Goals of Training

Generally, training may be aimed at one or more of the following three goals:

1. Improve individual self-awareness

2. Enhance knowledge and skill levels in one or more areas of expertise

3. Increase the motivation to do the job well

Self-awareness includes an understanding of the impact one's behavior has on others, self-confidence in the performance of one's work, and clarity about one's roles and responsibilities in the organization. Skill level enhancement can be oriented toward motor skills (driving a forklift safely), interpersonal skills (effective teamwork), intellectual skills (problem solving), or others. Most of what is traditionally viewed as training and development has this type of goal in mind. An increasingly popular type of training involves enhancing individual and team motivation to perform. Frequently, this type of training is oriented toward getting buy-in for a proposed change of direction or strategy in the organization.

General Steps

Before any training and development program is begun, a thorough analysis (or assessment) of training needs is required. Here, current and anticipated needs of the organization in terms of human resource capabilities are made explicit, and the current knowledge, skill, and ability levels of employees are compared to those needs. In theory, specific deficiencies found would signify not only who needs training, but also exactly what type of training is required. Once training needs have been determined, learning objectives must be established and the choice of training programs made. Other decisions to be made include the length of the program, the choice of trainers, how the trainers will themselves be trained, where the training will take place (on- or off-site), and so forth. These types of decisions can be grouped under the heading of training program design and implementation considerations. As with all HR efforts, training and development programs should be evaluated for their effectiveness. Since training programs are expensive and time-consuming, it seems reasonable to inquire whether or not the money and time have been used wisely and the training objectives met. For a variety of reasons, however, this step is often skipped in organizations.

These then are the general steps in the training and development process. These elements will be discussed separately in subsequent topics in this book. It is important to recognize, though, that these elements are not mutually exclusive, and they encompass subcomponents that may blend with one another. For example, evaluation is listed at the end, but it should occur throughout the process. These basic steps in the training and development cycle, which have been introduced above, comprise what is called the ADDIE model, consisting of the five steps of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation.

The ADDIE model evolved from instructional design theory that guided post-World War II training in the military, particularly in the Air Force. The goal of ADDIE from the beginning was to foster the design and conduct of effective and efficient training for specific jobs, assuring that learners leave the training with the knowledge and skills necessary to perform those jobs. The ADDIE model suggests a continuous cycle wherein the results of evaluation from one training program become part of the assessment of needs for the next program. While this makes conceptual sense, it is true that in many organizations the cycle is more of a linear series of steps starting with assessment and ending with implementation, and (sometimes) evaluation.3