1.2 Journalism Definitions, Terms, and Practices

To begin, let’s identify what journalism means. Simply defined, journalism is the act of creating and distributing reports of current events based on evidence gathered from sources, eyewitness accounts, and research. The distribution of reports may occur through printed newspapers or magazines, radio, television, or online channels. The definition and role of journalism in any given society may depend on the various systems of government around the world and each country’s regard for a free press. For example, in some countries the news media may be funded and controlled by the national government. In other instances, corporate monopolies may compromise the free flow of information. Whatever free speech and press protections exist, reporting objective truth is a constant struggle between competing interests, either between competitive news agencies or between ideological principles of free expression. Another competing interest is the means by which news organizations are funded—either through free-market capitalism or government subsidy. Questioning who writes the checks for news employees will always call journalists’ loyalties into question.

Journalism Subcategories

The broad definition of journalism does not take into account the varied options for sharing information on current events based on evidence. In reality, there are different genres of journalism that present evidence in various ways.

The following are some of the common styles of journalism.

Advocacy journalism: Reporting that advocates a select viewpoint that may influence the way audiences feel about certain topics. An example would be a series of reports on homelessness in a large urban area.

Investigative journalism: A reporting style that depends heavily on in-depth research, often covering sensitive topics, such as government corruption, corporate malfeasance, or criminal activity.

Photojournalism: The act of telling stories through imagery, especially photography, video, and motion pictures. This type of storytelling can stand on its own or may be used in conjunction with written reports or audio. Many documentaries use this form.

Tabloid journalism: A lighthearted reporting style that covers trivial matters such as celebrity gossip and entertainment news. This type of journalism is considered to be less authentic than other forms of reporting, often relying on innuendo.

Yellow journalism (sensationalism): A style of reporting that emphasizes rumors, exaggerated claims, and unverified sources. In modern terms, this type of journalism has been referred to as “fake news,” often used by outlets that are compromised by allegiance to a particular political or cultural ideology. This style is also distinguished by an intent to increase audiences instead of report objective truth.

Gonzo journalism: A reporting style, popularized by Hunter S. Thompson, in which journalists insert themselves into a story by writing in first-person. This style allows a reporter to assert their own (often cynical) feelings about the subjects or persons they are covering, with less regard for accuracy than other forms of journalism.

Citizen journalism: A style of reporting in which ordinary citizens use smartphones and other portable devices to record events or public figures. Citizen journalism is enabled through the independence granted by technology in the digital age and is also referred to as “participatory journalism,” “collaborative media,” “guerilla journalism,” or “street journalism.” In a positive framework, this kind of reporting can add context and facts that major news outlets may not have access to. Citizen journalists are often able to verify intentional attempts at misinformation or clarify reporting errors from larger outlets. On the seedier side, this form of reporting is a hallmark of paparazzi who stalk celebrities, sometimes selling their recordings to large tabloids or networks.

Journalists

The role of individuals who report the news is perhaps even more diverse than the definition of journalism itself. What is a journalist? It may depend on a variety of factors, especially in the digital age of information. A journalist, also known as a reporter, used to be defined by the printed channel of distribution (such as newspaper) that paid that professional's wage or salary. In other words, if you wrote for a publication and your primary role was to present information on current events, you were a reporter. As new means of delivery evolved, so did the role of journalists.

For example, you may be watching a national cable news channel that features a pundit who spends most of their allotted time sharing personal opinions on politics, society, or cultural issues. During the broadcast, a major event occurs (such as a terrorist attack), and the pundit reports the event as it unfolds via a live feed. In essence, regardless of the pundit’s political or ideological disposition, they are reporting the facts as they know them, based on visual evidence, official reports, or eyewitness accounts. If the scene unfolds on live television, the pundit becomes an eyewitness. The same can be said of the audience, who experiences the event in real time as well.

This was true on the morning of September 11, 2001, as morning show hosts who would normally be chatting about entertainment, pop culture, fashion trends, sports, and other trivial matters were compelled to describe live pictures of the World Trade Center being hit by airplanes and collapsing. Ron Insana, an MSNBC host and analyst who specialized in stock market and financial news, was caught in the dust cloud produced by one of the collapsing World Trade Center towers. Rather than report on the rising or falling markets that day as he normally would, Insana reported details of the horrifying events.1 Up to that point of his career, no one would have considered Insana a reporter, but he was nominated for a News and Documentary Emmy award as part of the NBC News team that covered 9/11.2

Beyond circumstance, other factors may alter the meaning of the title “journalist.” As the 2004 presidential election approached, CBS News reporter Dan Rather ran a report during a Wednesday edition of 60 Minutes on the military service of George W. Bush, who was running a close campaign against Democratic nominee John Kerry. The report alleged that Bush’s stint in the early 1970s with the Texas Air National Guard was tainted by favoritism and the political influence of his father, George H. W. Bush. The senior Bush was well connected as chairman of the Republican National Committee at the time and preceded his son as U.S. president from 1989 to 1993. The 60 Minutes report implied that the younger Bush was protected from combat duty during the Vietnam War and that he failed to meet his service requirements to the National Guard.

Shortly after the report, viewers acting as amateur sleuths called into question the key documents that were presented as evidence in the news segment. Using emerging internet blogs and forums, these citizen journalists drew public attention to the use of a font in Rather’s report that was identical to the default Times New Roman typeface exclusive to the 2004 version of Microsoft Word. They alleged that typewriters available during the early 1970s could not produce the font seen in the copies of documents used by CBS. Other inconsistencies involving the timeline of events, internal verification by CBS experts, and questionable motivation of sources were also highlighted by individuals in the “blogosphere.” These questions led to an investigation, the dismissal of several CBS staffers, and Rather’s eventual resignation following a stellar career that spanned four decades. This moment in U.S. journalism history not only changed what constitutes investigative journalism but also changed public perception of established news agencies and cast doubt on those who present themselves as trusted mainstream journalists. The “Rathergate” incident, as it came to be known, also highlighted another shift in public perception about the objectivity of journalists.

Today, journalism continues to function through major news agencies or channels, but the digital age has altered the way facts and events are reported. In years past, it took time for public vetting of reporting errors or outright misinformation to occur. Now that so much information is available at a moment’s notice, independent fact-checkers are able to point out inconsistencies in real time.

The idea of a citizen journalist is not limited to fact-checking, either. Since most people possess smartphones and other digital devices with several social media channels at their disposal, anyone can report news events. Such blurred lines between established news reporters and masses of people who are able to report faster than a news crew can arrive on scene has also complicated who can be credentialed by official or private organizations. For example, you may own a blog that provides film reviews and receive a credential that will allow you to attend private screenings in advance, even though you are not affiliated with any official news channel. The same can be said of a political blogger or YouTube influencer who expects the same kind of access a television reporter gets to official press conferences or other events. Even so, independent journalists may be held liable for any violation of the law, including plagiarism, fabrication, libel, or defamation.

Without editorial oversight, facts may be misconstrued, opinions may be reported as fact, and individual or societal damage may occur. For independent journalists, this is the biggest risk, even with First Amendment speech and free press protections. Though these rights are essential for news reporting in a democratic society, there are consequences for abusing them.

Ethics

The responsibility of honest journalism falls on the individual reporter or the organization they represent. The same can be said of journalistic ethics or moral codes of conduct while reporting news events. Being part of a news organization means there are usually internal codes of ethical (and legal) conduct built into the human resource guidelines. As an industry, journalism is supported by several independent organizations that also publish codes of conduct. Again, adherence to these codes is primarily an individual choice, even though most journalists who represent news agencies are supported by their organization. We will dive deeper into ethical standards and scenarios in a later topic of this course.

Objectivity

Any individuals who call themselves journalists or reporters should be driven by the purpose of fact-finding and reporting that can be verified through evidence. Whenever reporters or news agencies are driven by bias, personal agendas, or other self-serving interests, they move further away from the ideal of objectivity. Objectivity is the philosophy of seeking and presenting truth, free of bias or opinion. This is not to suggest that every news story can be void of bias or other competing interests, but without constant vigilance for objectivity, a reporter or news agency may suffer a general loss of trust from audiences. Ironically, the trend in modern journalism is for new sources to lean toward content that caters to the bias of a particular audience. Many national news outlets provide content to “liberal” or “conservative” audiences, even though these outlets claim to be objective.

Individual journalists who work for large organizations may be influenced to disregard ethical tenets of objectivity in favor of what their editors and managers dictate. This dilemma of choosing between objective truth and what the audience or ownership wants may lead to a general lack of confidence in news media.

The overall lack of trust or the tendency to only listen to coverage that confirms one’s bias is perhaps moving news organizations toward opinion-driven content rather than objective information that allows audiences to make their own judgments on politics, current affairs, and the impact of major events.

Gatekeepers

Perhaps the best defense for unethical, illegal, or less-than-objective reporting is having news managers to oversee coverage and content. These individuals or committees are known as gatekeepers, or the last barrier between misinformation or errors and the audience before a news story is published. Another name for gatekeeper is editor. These individuals or groups serve in a number of capacities, including running checks on punctuation, spelling, grammar, and context. Moreover, an editor also provides another set of eyes for reporters who may be too familiar with their own words to recognize simple mistakes. Many times, a writer is more aware of what they mean to say than the actual words they provide. In simpler terms, modifiers, pronouns, or correct punctuation may not make it to the page or screen when a reporter is expressing a thought. Editors have the luxury of seeing the written words for the first time and can correct such lapses.

Gatekeepers often perform another important part of the journalism process before a single word is written. News managers are responsible for prioritizing which stories are covered and from which angles they are covered. In a newsroom, these individuals are often called assignment editors. These individuals or groups of people make decisions that shape the content and match reporters who have varying abilities to the stories they cover. In a broader sense, assignment editors also develop a news agency’s brand or reputation. For example, one local television’s news brand may be investigative or consumer reporting, while another may focus on politics or feature-style reporting. These different styles are created, developed, and maintained by the organization’s gatekeepers.

The term gatekeeper does not just apply to editorial groups or managers. Sometimes, a legal team may provide important protections for news coverage of sensitive issues or events. Depending on the level of involvement or size of an organization, the publisher or board of directors may get involved in the process.