5.2 Examining a Federal Census

A census was mandated as part of the U.S. Constitution when it was signed in 1787.2 Article 1, section 2, clause 3 states: “The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct.” 3 Following this guideline, in order to determine representation in the House of Representatives, the first federal census was taken in 1790.4 A decennial census has been taken ever since; however, political climate, social circumstances, and other motivations to collect data influence how the census evolves over time. 5

President George Washington, acting as head of the U.S. Federal Government, supervised the first census and “the U.S. Marshal for each Federal judicial district was responsible for taking the census in his district with the help of assistant marshals whom he appointed.” 6 In agreeing to perform these duties, the marshals took the following oath or affirmation: “I will well and truly cause to be made, a just and perfect enumeration and description of all persons resident within my district, and return the same to the President of the United States, agreeably to the directions of an act of Congress, entitled, ‘An act providing for the enumeration of the inhabitants of the United States,’ according to the best of my ability.”7

There were no pre-printed forms or standard methods issued by the federal government. The marshals were left to their own devices to complete the task at their own expense. In Massachusetts, the marshal ordered census forms printed; in all other states, the data was tabulated on whatever paper was available. 8 Some used merchant ledgers, journals, or other accounting devices. Because of these and other factors, the information in early census records is limited. From 1790 to 1840, population schedules contain basic information and, although each individual is enumerated, only names of the head of household are listed. Other members of the household are identified by tally marks or the number of individuals that fall into particular categories, like gender, age, and slavery status.

The 1850 census was the first federal census to list the names of each individual household member. Other information collected addressed the value of owned real estate, whether married or attending school in the past year, literacy, and place of birth. 9

In the 1880 census, enumerators began including the relationship of each individual to the head of household. This is particularly helpful to genealogists.

The 1890 census was taken for more than 60 million individuals, but the data was lost in two fires. Only fragments remain accessible to researchers.10 To compensate for this loss, family historians turn to substitutes: some states conducted censuses between federal census years, and there are other types of schedules such as mortality or agricultural schedules. City directories are also a good census substitute and may have been printed as often as every year.

In 1900 and 1910, additional questions provide researchers with valuable family information and assist in identifying vital records. For example, in 1900, questions were crafted to record how long someone had been married and what year they immigrated to the United States. In 1900 and 1910, women were asked how many children they had given birth to and how many of those children were still living. The federal census has become more detailed over time, so the data collected becomes more detailed in more recent years. Due to privacy and other concerns, there is a 72-year restriction on the release of census information; this means the most recent census available for research is the 1950 U.S. Census.11 Records from the 1960 U.S. Census will be released in 2032.